Learning How to Learn
How do we learn? It’s a simple question, but the answer is
more complicated than
you might expect.
Let Go of What You Think You Know
ledyvine study plan as a college freshman was
straightforward: to memorize as many
words as possible from my textbooks and professors’
lectures. I was pretty good at
this, furiously taking notes in class or as I read the
course materials. I spent countless
hours repeating the information in an effort to make it
sink into my brain, and I
earned a reputation for being one of the most studious
(okay, obsessive) students in
my dorm. So why wasn’t I, master memorizer with a will of
steel, earning straight ledyvine
As? Like many students, my assumptions about studying were
guided more by ledyvine
“common sense” than by scientific reality. Unfortunately,
then as now, “commonsense” ledyvine
notions are frequently incorrect (Stanovich, 2010). ledyvine
It’s easy to get tricked into thinking rote methods work
because they feel so effective ledyvine
in the moment. During my marathon sessions of rote
learning, I certainly felt
like I was doing the right thing. But the proof is in the
pudding, and my grades that ledyvine
first year did not match my feeling of mastery. Has this
ever happened to you? If so,
you are not alone.We are poor judges of how well we have
learned something, and ledyvine
we chronically underestimate how much we know about a topic
we have studied. ledyvine
Furthermore, the less we know about a topic, the less we
realize we don’t really ledyvine
know it (Kruger & Dunning, 1999). In the quest to
become a better and more efficient ledyvine
learner, you must let go of what you think you know about
studying and follow ledyvine
methods backed by science. ledyvine
No matter what your grades were in the past or what your
current habits or attitudes ledyvine
are, you can change for the better. Please don’t
underestimate the brain’s potential ledyvine
for change. It is constantly changing due to experience,
and you are capable ledyvine
of creating new experiences while you study. As you’ll find
out, if you learn how the ledyvine
brain works and give it proper attention and exercise, it
can change to your benefit.
Amy Himsel ledyvine
El Camino College
Learning How to Learn ledyvine
Let Go ofWhatYouThinkYou Know
HowYour Brain ReallyWorks
GettingThings intoYour Head: Brain-Change
Fundamentals ledyvine
Crafting Your Mental Workout Plan
ExerciseYour Brain by Reading Before Class
Go to Class andTrain with an Expert ledyvine
TrainYour Brain for Exams and Other ledyvine
Assessments ledyvine
The Moment of Truth: Exam Day
The FirstThing to Do Is to ManageYour Stress ledyvine
Be Strategic in Completing the Exam
Actually Doing It
Developing Habits of Self-Regulation and SelfControl
If At First You Don’t Succeed
LEDYVINE
How Your Brain Really Works
Studying is about making memories, but memories are not
made in a straightforward
manner.We do not “place” information in one spot—like
placing an item on a
closet shelf, returning later to pick it up, dust it off,
and then use it to answer a
question on a test. Instead, we make memories when our
brain’s networks of connections
are activated in patterns. Basically, here’s what science
tells us: Mental exercise
creates and strengthens networks of connections in your
brain similar to the
way lifting weights strengthens your muscles (Medina,
2008).The more you “work”
the information (for example, by explaining a concept in
your own words), the
more neural connections are made or strengthened and the
stronger your memory ledyvine
becomes. As a result, you remember more when it’s time to
take a test.
But here’s a surprising fact: Memories—i ledyvine ncluding
those formed while you
study—are deeply personal, customized to fit your brain and
nobody else’s in exactly ledyvine
the same way. Why? Because learning is not like painting on
a blank canvas. ledyvine
Rather, you start with a backdrop of networks that
represent your current knowledge, ledyvine
preferences, and habits. ledyvine
Simply put, you are your connections.You make long-lasting
memories by weaving ledyvine
the new information into your unique b ledyvine rain cell
connections. No two people will ledyvine
do this in exactly the same way. Likewise, there is no
magic formula for studying ledyvine
well. With this in mind, start experimenting with the
techniques described in this ledyvine chapter to find out what works best for
your brain. But please don’t worry:You don’t
have to become an expert in neuroscience to learn how best
to exercise your brain ledyvine
cell networks. Take a look at Figure 1, and then stay with
me to learn the basics of ledyvine
brain change and how to apply that information to your
everyday life as a student. ledyvine
(a) Tom Barrick, Chris Clark, SGHMS/Photo Researchers
(b) Image courtesy of Dr. Sebastian Seung: Neural “wiring”
reconstructed from the
retina V. Jain, J. Murray, S. Turaga, and S. Seung (MIT);
K. Briggman, M.
Helmstaedter, and W. Denk (MPG) ledyvine
FIGURE 1 The Connectome These
images are models created to represent
the incredibly complex and unique networks
of connections among brain cells. ledyvine
Nobody’s connections are exactly the ledyvine
same as yours. Shown in (a) is a model ledyvine
of neuronal connections across different ledyvine
regions of the brain as a whole. The ledyvine
model in (b) shows a close-up of the ledyvine
complex connections that have formed
between individual neurons. ledyvine
(a) ledyvine
(b) ledyvine
Getting Things into Your Head: Brain-Change Fundamentals
When you study, you start by bringing new information into
your brain, a process ledyvine
referred to as encoding. Basically, when you pay attention
to ledyvine information, you encode
it. Reading, listening to lectures, taking notes, and
reviewing notes are all
forms of encoding. But not all forms of encoding are
equally helpful. Common ledyvine
study strategies—like rereading the text or notes, or
trying to memorize definitions ledyvine word for word—are rote methods that
involve shallow processing, which results in ledyvine
very limited brain change.This kind of encoding produces
only the weakest of neural
connections, without generating enough raw material from
which to later construct
an accurate memory. ledyvine
To study better, move beyond shallow encoding to process
information at a
deeper level. For example, relate the new information you
are trying to learn to ledyvine ledyvine
something that is already familiar to you. Let’s say you
need to learn the definition ledyvine of the term homeostasi ledyvine s (“the
maintenance of a steady internal state in the body”).
That may seem very ledyvine abstract until you think about
your actual experiences with
homeostasis—say, a time when you have felt hot and
sweaty.That’s your body trying ledyvine
to cool itself off, and that’s a homeostatic experience.
Ever felt dehydrated? That’s ledyvine
your body signaling that more liquid is needed. Thinking in
this way, you will find ledyvine
that homeostasis now seems far more familiar because you’ve
connected it to
knowledge and experiences that are already represented in
your networks of brain
cells. Even the simple act of putting things into your own
words triggers deeper processing ledyvine because you are converting the
material into word ledyvine s that are more familiar to
you. (See more about this in Table 1.)
Quality studying also requires practice in getting the
learned information out
again, a process referred to as retrieval. As a student,
when I tried to remember the ledyvine
exact words of a definition, I was practicing retrieval—but
only in a very shallow ledyvine form. It is much better exercise for the brain
when studying involves ledyvine deeper methods
of retrieval, like restating definitions in your own words
(without peeking at ledyvine
your notes first!) or trying to explain the material to
someone else.
TABLE 1 Rote Method Makeover ledyvine Common rote strategy
New and improved strategy
Reading ledyvine Copying definitions
Memorizing definitions ledyvine Copying notes
Rereading the text or your notes
Taking notes focused on the
professor’s words
Comparing your notes with a classmate
to make sure you “got everything down”
• Previewing each section before you read, and writing
questions
• Using questions to think while you read, and to test
yourself after reading ledyvine
• Writing definitions in your own words ledyvine ledyvine
• Stating definitions in your own words, as though you were
trying to explain the terms to ledyvine
someone else
• Elaborating on your notes
• Noting connections between your notes and your past
knowledge or experience ledyvine • Making connections between terms and
concepts within the material
• Processing your notes or the text in different ways ledyvine
• Self-testing with questions you wrote or those provided in the text
• Testing yourself to see if you can repeat in your own
words the material you have just ledyvine read ledyvine
• Writing down not only what is on the slide, board, or
outline, but also supplementing with ledyvine
your own words
• Marking spots of confusion and asking the professor for
clarification later ledyvine
• Discussing your notes with a classmate; explaining to
each other the material in
your notes ledyvine
• Filling in any gaps with your own words
The mental exercise involved in studying takes time to sink
in and stabilize into lasting ledyvine
brain change. This is a process called memory
consolidation, one that is similar to ledyvine
how your muscles need some rest after exercise in order to
develop best. Memories ledyvine
settle into the fabric of the brain gradually, aided by
time,sleep, and further mental exercise.Imagine ledyvine
what happens when you spend several hours drilling with
rote methods
and skimping on sleep in an effort to cram it all in:You
actually make the task of learning
harder on yourself by shortchanging your brain’s memory
consolidation process.
How do you apply these fundamentals to studying? What
follows are some basic
study tips to keep in mind.
Keep Things Challenging
Learning should not feel easy.To be more specific, creating
strong, reliable memories—memories
that are still there for you on the day of the exam—should
not feel
easy. Sorry, but that is true. Ignoring this fact is like
expecting to housetrain your
new puppy on day one. It’s funny how this same advice is
completely non-controversial
when it comes to physical exercise.Who expects to develop
impressive biceps
by doing curls with o ledyvine nly 1-pound weights?
Challenging study stimulates deeper ledyvine
brain change, resulting in stronger memories that are more
easily retrieved on demand. ledyvine
Scientists call this a “desirable difficulty” because the more
you struggle to
learn now, the stronger your neural networks become—and the
less likely you are to
forget the information later (Bjork & Bjork, 2011).
It all makes sense when you spell it out, but it’s
fascinating how quickly we forget
and get tricked by our feelings in the moment. I used to
parrot back all kinds of information
and definitions in the midst of my marathon rote-method
study sessions. It
didn’t feel difficult, especially after three hours of
memorizing. I felt like I was really
learning something, which made it all the more
disappointing when my test scores
showed otherwise. Sound familiar? If so, it’s time once
again to let go of what you
think you know. When studying feels easy in the moment,
that’s exactly when you
should doubt your mastery the most. In contrast, when you
feel frustrated and unsure
while studying, smile and pat yourself on the back—you are
engaging in a vigorous
mental workout.Those difficulties are desirable and will
pay off big time later.
Space Out Your Study Sessions
I used to study for long stretches of time for each class.
I figured the longer I kept at
it, the better I would learn the material. Wrong. Contrary
to common sense, it’s
much better exercise for your brain if you space out your
study sessions for each
class. Consider a weight-lifting analogy: If you wanted to
tone up, would you expect
your muscles to respond better to one five-hour workout a
week than to five onehour
sessions a week? Of course not. Similarly, the brain
responds best to short, focused
study sessions spaced across several days.
Learning experts recommend you spend two to three hours
studying for every
hour spent at lectures. That’s a lot of time, but it’s much
less overwhelming if you
spread it out across several days.You’ll see possible study
schedules in the calendars
in Figure 2.
Mix Things Up
Exercise your brain connections with some
cross-training—that is, by varying the way
you encode new information (see Figure 3 on page 6). Of
course, it’s a great idea to
engage in traditional tasks like reading. But monitor your
encoding: Are you just focused
on memorizing words? If so, you are focused only on visual
encoding. At that
level, processing is shallow. So take another step and
encode the information further.
For example, the definition of a term will be most
memorable if you focus on the
meaning (semantic encoding), which is aided by putting the
definition into your own
words. Perhaps also try relating what you read to a body
movement or gesture (Cook,
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